EARLY CHURCH
WRITINGS
V.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Charles P.
Poole, Jr.
1. Introduction
2. Doctrines and Practices
2a. Abortion
2b. Anointing of the Sick
2c. Baptism
2d. Brothers and Sisters
of Jesus?
2e. Confirmation
2f. Eucharist
2g. Forgiving Sins
2h.
Hierarchy
2i. Magisterium
2j. Mariology
2k.
Marriage
2l. Mass
2m.
Messiah
2n.
Ordination
2o.
Prayer
2p.
Schisms and Heresies
2q.
Scripture and Tradition
2r, Sign of the Cross
3. Disputes and Hardships
4. Councils
5.
Exiles
6.
Heresies and Other Enemies
6a. Paganism
6b. Judaism
6c. Gnosticism
6d. Simon Magnus
6e. Docetism
6f. Marcion
6g. Montanism
7.
Consolidating the Church
8. Our
Heritage
1.
Introduction
In the previous four classes we discussed in turn the noncanonical writings in the style of the Old Testament,
the apocryphal writings somehow associated with the New Testament, second
century Christian writings, and third century Christian literature. The present chapter discusses our Catholic
beliefs and practices in terms of how they were impacted and influenced by
these early Christian writings. We as
Catholics base our faith on both scripture and tradition, and many of the
writings that we are discussing constitute the oldest written records of this
Tradition. Some of these early writings are orthodox in viewpoint, while others
were written by authors with gnostic or otherwise
heretical points of view. Some are
simply exaggerated legends, and can be given no credence. It is necessary to distinguish between what
is authentic, and what is not.
2. Doctrines and Practices
There are many doctrines and practices of the Church that
date back to apostolic times, and are referred to or discussed in the early
Christian writings. We will comment on some of them, and on what the early
writings of the Church say about them.
2a. Abortion
The earliest of the Apostolic writings, the Didache, has a very clear statement on this issue: “Do not
kill a fetus by an abortion,” so the Church’s position on abortion dates back
to the first patristic document in existence.
2b. Anointing of the Sick
The Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus
provides blessings of oil for the sick. It says of this oil “let it bring
comfort to those who taste of it, and health to those who use it.” The Euchologion of Serapion contains similar blessings of oil for the
sick. The Old Gelesian
Sacramentary also had prayers for the sick. Polycarp and Hippolytus both urged priests and bishops to visit the
sick, and in the Canons of Hippolytus we read, “They
find relief in their sickness when the bishop comes to them, and especially
when he prays over them.” The Didascalia assigns the task of visiting the sick to
deacons. The Gospel of Philip refers to anointing as a sacrament. The Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus mentions laity who have
received the gift of healing.
2c. Baptism
Baptism is mentioned a number of times in the early
Christian literature, and the Gospel of Philip identifies it as a
sacrament. The Didache
provides a liturgical instruction on Baptism, and the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus contains an elementary Sacramentary
which explains how to baptize. The
Pedagogue asserts that those who are redeemed and reborn by baptism have become
children of God. The Apostles’ Creed provides a creedal formula that may have
been recited by early Church converts at their baptisms.. There was an early Church controversy about
the validity of baptisms performed by heretics which
the
2d. Brothers
and Sisters of Jesus?
Many have wondered how to explain the mention of brothers
and sisters of Jesus in the gospels (Matt
2e. Confirmation
The Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus
contains an elementary Sacramentary with directions
for the administration of both baptism and confirmation. The Euchologion of Serapion contains seven liturgical prayers to be said at
baptism and confirmation. In the early
Church adults were generally confirmed shortly after being baptized.
2f. Eucharist
The Didache and the Apostolic
Tradition of Hippolytus both provide us with short
Eucharistic Prayers. Some of the
Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch emphasize the importance of the Eucharist in
the early Christian communities. He wrote to the Ephesians “Pray
constantly . . . Make an effort, then, to meet more frequently
to celebrate God’s Eucharist and to offer praise . . . Take care, then, to partake of one Eucharist,
for one is the flesh of Our Lord Jesus Christ, and one the cup to unite us to
His Blood.” To the Smyrnaeans
Ignatius wrote “The Eucharist is the flesh of our Savior Jesus Christ,” The
Eucharist is referred to several times in Justin Martyr’s dialogue with Trypho. The Gospel
of Philip mentions the Eucharist as a sacrament. The Acts of Thomas tells the story of the
punishment of a man who committed a grave sin and then received the Eucharist.
The Gospel of Philip states that “The Eucharist is Jesus.” The Gospel of the Hebrews has the Lord
appearing to James at a Eucharistic meal after the Resurrection. Thus the
ancient practice of the Church was to put more emphasis on the Liturgy of the
Eucharist than on the Liturgy of the Word, as is true with our Mass today. In contrast to this most branches of
Protestantism place
more emphasis on the Word than they do on the Eucharist at their
Sunday services.
2g. Forgiving Sins
The
The Didache says: “On the Lord’s day assemble in common to break bread and offer
thanks, but first confess your sins so that your sacrifice may be pure.” Thus the Mass of antiquity, like our present
Mass, had a
penitential rite. In the Apostolic
Tradition of Hippolytus it is mentioned concerning a
bishop that “by the high priestly spirit he may have authority to forgive sins
according to Thy command.”
Several of the early Church writings refer to the three
orders of ministry that are mentioned in the New Testament, namely overseers or
bishops, elders or presbyters, and deacons.
Since the Second Vatican Council priests are often referred to as
presbyters in the Catholic Church. The Didache says “Worthy men should be elected bishops and
deacons.” Several of the letters of
Ignatius of Antioch mention the three orders of ministry. Ignatius sent greetings to the bishop, to the
presbyters, and to the deacon of Magnesia. He made several interesting comments
to the Philadelphians: a) They should be “one with the bishop and his
assistants, the presbyters and deacons, that have been appointed in accordance
with the wish of Jesus Christ,” b)
“Where the shepherd is you, being sheep, must follow.” To the Smyrnaeans
he wrote “Follow the lead of the bishop, as Jesus Christ followed that of the
Father; follow the presbytery as you would the apostles; reverence the deacons
as you would God’s commandment,” and
“Where the bishop appears there let the people of God be, just as where Jesus
Christ is, there is the Catholic Church.”
We read in the first epistle of Clement to the Corinthians that the
Apostles had “from among their earliest converts appointed men whom they had
tested by the Spirit to act as bishops and deacons for the future
believers.” In vision 3 Hermas talks about bishops, teachers and deacons as the
chosen ones of God. The Didascalia discusses bishops (Ch. 4 to 9, 11, 12, 19), as
well as deacons and deaconesses (Ch. 11,
16).
2i. Magisterium and Primacy of
There was an early Church controversy about baptisms
performed by heretics, the validity of which the
In the Shepherd of Hermas we read: “You will write two little books, sending
one to Clement and the other to Grapte. Clement will send his to the foreign cities,
for this is his commission. Grapte will admonish the widows and orphans, and you will
read yours in this city, with the presbyters who lead the Church.” Clement I of
2j. Mariology
Ode 19 of Solomon makes reference to a painless virgin
birth “The Spirit opened the womb of the Virgin, and she received conception
and brought forth her son, and the Virgin became a mother with many
mercies.” The Proto-Gospel of James
describes the visit of Mary to
2k. Marriage
The Epistle of Diognetus mentions “Christians do not differ from other men
and women in country or language or customs . . . They marry like everyone else.” We do not have records of Christian marriage
ceremonies as such, although the Gospel of Philip does refer to marriage as a
sacrament. Ignatius of Antioch wrote in
his Epistle to Polycarp, “It is proper to enter the
union (of marriage) with the sanction of the bishop; thus their marriage will
be acceptable to the Lord and not just gratify lust.” Roman law or local customs were followed
with respect to mutual free consent, age, kinship, affinity, civil law,
etc. Christian marriages were generally
performed within a family setting.
After the Edict of Milan in 313 AD and the establishment of religious
freedom in the Empire, liturgical rites and nuptial blessings began being
introduced into Christian marriage ceremonies.
The first recorded mention of a nuptial blessing during Mass was about
the year 436 AD.
2l. Mass
The Euchologion of Serapion contained thirty
liturgical prayers. The section of the Didache on the Eucharist includes a short Eucharistic
Prayer with similarities to the Eucharistic prayers that we now hear at
2m. Messiah
Several of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs make reference
to the coming of the Messiah. In the
Testament of Simeon we read “The Lord shall raise up from Levi as it were a
high priest, and from
2n. Ordination
Several of the Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch mention the
three ordained orders of bishop, presbyter or priest, and deacon. The Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus discusses the ordination of bishops, presbyters
and deacons by the imposition of hands by the bishop: “When a presbyter is
ordained the bishop shall lay his hands on his head.” Concerning a deacon it says “he is not
ordained for a priesthood, but for the service of the bishop.” It makes clear that “Ordination is for the
clergy,” and discusses the selection of other classes of ministers who are not
ordained, such as widows, lectors, virgins, healers, and subdeacons. The Euchologion of Serapion has similar imposition of hands rituals for
ordaining the three orders of the clergy.
2o. Prayer
In his work on Prayer Origen
treats prayer in general, and then in the latter part of the work, he discusses
the Our Father in detail. Both the
Catechism of the Council of Trent, and the Catechism of the Catholic Church
which was authorized by the second Vatican Council, discuss prayer in general, and expound
on it through the various petitions of the Our Father.
2p. Schisms and Heresies
Ignatius of Antioch warned the Trallians
against listening to heresies. Polycarp in his Epistle to the Philippians says that we should
strive to reclaim heretics “as diseased and straying members.” In his first epistle to the Corinthians, Clement’s condemnation uses very strong language: “that
execrable and godless schism so utterly foreign to the elect of God. And it is only a few rash and headstrong
individuals that have inflamed it to such a degree of madness that your venerable, widely renowned, and universally and
deservedly cherished name has been greatly defamed.”
2q. Scripture
and Tradition
In First Principles Origen says
that the source of all religious truth is the teaching of Christ and his
apostles. He makes it clear that both scripture and tradition are the sources
of Christian doctrine, and that theology involves both tradition and progress. Tertullian says in
his Prescription of Heretics “Only the Church has the competency to interpret
the Scriptures.“
2r.
Sign of the Cross
The Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus
has a separate section (xxxvii) devoted to the Sign of the Cross, so its use
was ancient in the Church.
3. Disputes and Hardships
Throughout the earliest centuries the Church was beset with
resolving differences of opinion within the community, and coping with
opposition from outside. Between the
Ascension and Pentecost the followers of Jesus were a frightened group who came
to life after the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost (Acts 2:1-13). The apostles began to preach and get
converts, and shortly thereafter came persecution and the stoning of the first
martyr Stephen. The external opposition
came from the Jewish religion that they were replacing or fulfilling, and the
pagan or Roman authorities who ruled the land.
Then suddenly the Church’s arch-enemy Saul was converted,
and he became the foremost Christian missionary. The Church began to spread throughout the Graeco-Roman world, largely through his efforts and
leadership.
Internal problems arose.
The gentile converts in
4. Councils
Some of the decisions of the early Church were made at
official meetings called synods or councils.
The first such meeting was the Council of Jerusalem recounted in the
Acts of the Apostles (15:1-35). The canon of the scriptures was established at
North African Synods held at Hippo and
5. Exiles
One of the curious features of early Christianity is the number
of times important individuals, both orthodox and nonorthodox,
were censored,
excommunicated, or exiled by locally held councils. The apostle
John spent the end of his life in exile on the
When Origen was no longer welcome
at the
Hippolytus was involved in an 18
year long schism, and was elected the first antipope. Before his death in exile on the
6. Heresies and Other Enemies
There were several groups and influences which adversely
affected the apostolic Church, and we will comment on some of them. Many of the early writings such as the
apocryphal gospels that were discussed in the second class were strongly influenced
by Gnostisicm, perhaps by Docetism,
and by other heretical ideas, so they were rejected by the Church. Many of the writings of the early Fathers of
the Church were directed against and were refutations of heretical ideas. This is especially true of writings called
apologies
6a.
Paganism
Paganism,
the religion of the Roman Empire,
was based on various philosophical systems, and involved the worship of
polytheistic gods of mythology, idols, and sometimes living emperors who had
been deified. Christians were accused of
atheism, and persecuted because they refused to bow down to and worship these
pagan gods.
6b. Judaism
In principle Judaism represents the faith and practice of
the Jewish people. It
involves belief in one God revealed
through the Law, the prophets, covenants made with the Jewish people, and
events of history. We read in the Acts
of the Apostles (15;1-35) that a dispute arose concerning whether or not
Gentile Christians were obliged to obey the Mosaic law that was binding on
Jewish people. A Council was held, often called the Council of Jerusalem, which
decided that Gentile converts were not obliged to follow Jewish dietary
laws. Circumcision was also not
obligatory for male gentile converts.
Apparently most Jewish converts continued to observe the Mosaic Law, and
no one objected to this. Nevertheless
the early Church continued to experience pressure from some Jewish converts
called Judaizers who wished to remake Christianity
into a sect of Judaism. Eventually the Gentiles became so dominant that this
issue no longer caused concern. Detailed
arguments against these Judaizers can be found in The
Epistle of Barnabas, and in the Dialogue of Justin Martyr with Trypho.
6c. Gnosticism
The Greek word gnosis means simply knowledge, wisdom or
understanding. However among some sects
of the early Church called Gnostic sects the word came to denote a special type
of mystical knowledge or revelation made known to especially enlightened
people. Some accounts of mystical
knowledge involved personified Wisdom associated with creation stories, such as
from Genesis. Others acquired gnosis from words of Jesus passed on in secret to
the twelve apostles, who in turn passed them on a group of spiritually gifted
people who could attain salvation through them, salvation not available to the
unenlightened. Some Gnostics claimed
that the world was created by a lesser god called a Demiurge. There were a number of Gnostic sects in
apostolic and second or third century times with related but divergent beliefs
concerning enlightenment.
6d. Simon Magnus
Simon Magnus was a magician whose conversion was recounted
in th Acts of the Apostles
(8:9-25). Soon afterwards he offered to
give money to the apostles if they would grant him the power to lay on hands
and bring down the Holy Spirit. Peter
immediately condemned him for trying to purchase such a gift. Later Simon Magnus became a leader in a
Gnostic sect, and legends were written about him and his alleged magic
powers. The Acts of Peter discussed in
Class 2 describe how the Christian leader Simon Peter came to Rome to
counteract the pernicious influence of the Gnostic leader Simon Magnus. The latter’s Gnostic doctrines were refuted
by Irenaeus in Against Heresies.
6e. Docetism
Docetists claimed that Jesus did
not have a real body. The Second
Treatise of the Great Seth discussed in Class 2 describes how Jesus allegedly
went into and out of bodies during his public ministry years. At the
crucifixion Jesus supposedly departed from his apparently crucified body before
it physically died.
6f. Marcion
Marcion was a bishop who was
excommunicated, and then founded his own church with a hierarchy. He claimed that the harsh God of the Old Testrament was not the same as the loving God of the New
Testament. Only Paul and Luke understood
what Christ taught, so Marcion only accepted the
Gospel of Luke and the Pauline letters as authentic. He had many followers, since he was admired
for living an austere personal life.
6g. Montanism
Adherents of Montanism claimed to
be oracles of the Holy Spirit in possession of special charismatic
qualities. They practiced extreme
asceticism. Tertullian
joined them at age 92.
7. Consolidating the Church
As the Church entered its third century of existence with
peace established in the Empire it already had a governmental structure based
on the threefold hierarchy of orders, namely bishop, presbyter (priest) and
deacon, with a pope in Rome. It had
several main centers of influence:, Rome, Jerusalem,
Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople ruled by patriarchs. However, it still lacked an agreed upon set
of beliefs since some Christians denied the humanity or the divinity of Jesus,
and were not sure of the Trinity. In addition the Church still did not have an
agreed upon list
of sacred books for the scripture.
During the next sesquicentury, from 300 to 450
AD, the Church matured, settled its main problems, and reached a final stable
state of development. In the first
place, after much controversy, it settled the issue of the identity of
Jesus. It established that Jesus is both
truly human and truly divine, that Mary can validly be called the Mother of
God, and that there are three coequal divine persons in the Trinity. A series of four Ecumenical Councils
proclaimed these as dogmas to be believed: Nicaea
325, Constantinople 381, Ephesus 431 and Chalcedon
451.
The other crucial issue to be settled was: exactly
which books constitute Holy Scripture?
Canons of the Scripture had been proposed by Athanasius,
by Eusebius, and by Origen, and another listing was
found in the Muratorian Fragment. The canon of Athanasius,
which was included in his 367 AD festal letter,
was the one officially accepted by the North African Synod of Hippo in
393 AD, and then by the Magisterium. It is the 27 books in this final, officially
established, New Testament canon that all Christians of the world agree upon
today. Since during these early
centuries most of the faithful who could read used the Greek Septuagint Old
Testament, this became the version adapted by the Church, and remained
universally accepted throughout Christianity for over a thousand years more,
until the sixteenth century Protestant Reformers decided to adopt instead the Massoretic Hebrew version in use by Judaism.
Most of the best known Fathers of the Church lived during
the sequicentury from 300 to 450 AD, such as Serapion of Thmuis (d, 362),
Ambrose (d. 397), Athanasius (d. 373), Augustine (d.
430), Basil (d. 379), Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386), Didymus
the Blind (d. 398), Gregory of Nazianzus (d. 390),
Gregory of Nyssa (d. 394), Hilary (d. 367), Jerome (d. 420), John Cassian (d. 435),
John Chrysostom (d. 407), and Peter Chrysologus (d. 450). Selections from the writings of many
of these and the earlier Fathers of the Church are found in the Office of the
Readings of the Liturgy of the Hours (often called Christian Prayer). Discussions of these better known Fathers
must await a later time.
8. Our Heritage.
We have covered a great deal. We have acquired a sense of what it means to
say that we base our beliefs on Scripture and Tradition, and of what constitutes the earliest parts of Tradition. An examination
of three more centuries would complete this survey of Tradition, which of
course includes the decisions made at the first four Ecumenical Councils, and
the creedal statements
that they proclaimed.
In writing his History of the Church Eusebius tried to show
the hand of God working through history.
I think this concept is apparent in the development that we have
presented. The Church to which we belong
is not just an organization that blossomed forth from the scriptures, but
rather is a community that developed through history.
At the present time there are groups of historians
and biblical scholars who argue that ancient Christianity was a mixture of many
diverse groups of believers who were followers of Christ, and that they had a
variety of holy books, such as the many gospels discussed in our second class,
that should all be granted an equal footing with the official canon of
scripture in terms of authenticity. They
accuse the Catholic Church of suppressing these diverse groups, and imposing
their version of religion on all Christians.
Sometimes scholars from this group say weird things, like the claim that
the Acts of Thomas was written by a man named Thomas who was the twin brother
of Jesus. Actually, if the Church was to
survive in the early centuries it had to come to a universal understanding, for
example, that Jesus is both human and divine, and it very much needed an agreed
upon canon of Holy Scripture.
Fortunately the Holy Spirit was guiding it in this quest. The great majority of present day Christians, that is Catholics, Orthodox, and most Protestants,
accept the ancient creeds, the christological
decisions of the first four Ecumenical Councils, and the official canon of 27
inspired New Testament books.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I wish to thank Mr. L. A. Marsha for a grant which helped
to purchase the books needed to prepare these lecture notes.
I would like to thank Doris Christley
for her critical reading of, and her thoughtful comments and recommendations
concerning, the first draft of this work.