DRAFT OF A CHAPTER

CONFLICTS AND ECUMENISM

Charles P. Poole, Jr.

original July, 1999; written February 8, 2004; rev. June 19, 2006

CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. Estrangements in Genesis

3. Estrangements in Books of Samuel and Kings

4. The Temple

5. Time of Jesus

6. Council of Jerusalem

7. Early Century Disputes

a. Early Ecumenical Councils

b. Early Church Heresies

8. Filioque

9. Eastern Schism

10. Protestant Reformation

11. Beliefs of Creedal-Trinitarian Protestant Churches

12. Schisms within Religious Orders

13. Ecumenical Movement

1. INTRODUCTION

My interest in ecumenism dates back to my college days at Fordham when the movement was sometimes called irenics, Since this word is derived from eir‘n‘ (²4D0<0), the Greek word for peace, it seems more appropriate a term than ecumenical which originates from the past particle of the Greek word oikein (Ï46,4<) meaning to inhabit. For many decades my automobile license plate has displayed EIPHNH. the Greek word for peace written in Greek capital letters.

While I was in college a group of Catholic friends and I used to visit various Protestant ministers and say to them “We are looking for the best Protestant Church; could you tell us why yours is the best?” We learned a great deal from these interviews, both about the attitudes and beliefs of Protestants, and about the benefits of ecumenical contacts with them. The experience served to confirm us in our beliefs about the truth of Catholicism.

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2. ESTRANGEMENTS RECOUNTED IN GENESIS

Since my college years I have thought about schisms in our Churches. Separations of this type with long range implications have been happening for a long time, since the era of the Book of Genesis. The first event of this type which involved estrangement from God took place in the Garden of Eden, with original sin its consequence (Gen. 3). This was followed by the jealousy of the firstborn Cain toward his brother Able, and the murder of the latter (Gen. 4). Generations later the one faithful family of Noah was alienated from the remainder of humanity, and they were the only ones to survive the Flood (Gen. 7,8).  Future generations of various nations went their own ways at the Tower of Babel (Gen. 11). The next such event was the permanent separation of the two sons of Abraham, Isaac begotten by his wife Sarah, and his first born Ishmael begotten by Sarah's servant girl Hagar. The latter were exiled by Abraham at the insistence of Sarah, and both sons became progenitors of great nations (Gen. 21). The Jewish people are descendants of Isaac, and many believe that present day Arabs in Palestine are descendants of Ishmael. They are still fighting over the land that was called Canaan in the days of Abraham. To continue the story, Isaac had twin sons by his wife Rebekah: Esau the firstborn, and Jacob who was later renamed Israel. When Isaac was old and blind, Rebekah and Jacob conspired to trick Isaac into giving his solemn blessing and his birthright to Jacob instead of to his favorite son Esau. They did this by dressing Jacob in Esau’s clothes and preparing a meal of the type that Esau was planning to bring to his father (Gen. 27). Thus Jacob received the inheritance by deceit; Esau initially sought vengeance, but eventually they were reconciled. Later it was the Ishmaelites who saved the life of Jacob’s young son Joseph by taking him to Egypt when his brothers wanted to kill him (Gen. 37). Joseph eventually became the governor of Egypt, and later met his brothers when they came to him to obtain food during the seven years of famine (Gen. 42-45). Ten of the twelve tribes of Israel were named after Joseph’s brothers, and members of the tribe Levi spread among the other tribes as the priestly class. The remaining two tribes Ephraim and Manasseh were named after two sons of Joseph, so they are the Grandson Tribes of Jacob. Thus the entire book of Genesis, which ends with the funeral of Jacob (Gen. 50), was a story of continual estrangements involving family members of individuals who were the transmitters of the covenant of the Lord with His chosen people.

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3.  ESTRANGEMENTS RECOUNTED IN

BOOKS OF SAMUEL AND KINGS

The estrangements continued in the books of Samuel and Kings. David, the second king, had armed conflicts with the first king Saul (1 Samuel 18-24), and with his own son Absalom (2 Samuel 13-18). Solomon, who succeeded his father David as King, taxed the people so heavily to pay for building the First Temple that at his death in 922 BC the ten northern tribes seceded and formed the country called Israel with its capitol at Samaria, and the two southern tribes Judah and Benjamin formed the kingdom of Judah with Jerusalem as its capitol (1 Kings 12). The Northern Kingdom went into idol worship, then the prophet Elijah defeated the prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel (1 Kings 18). Nevertheless the schism between the two kingdoms was never healed. In the year 721 BC the Assyrians conquered Israel followed by exile of some in Nineveh, and in 539 BC the Babylonians captured Jerusalem,  thereby defeating Judah, and the 52 year long Babylonian exile began. When Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon in 539 BC, the Jewish people returned from exile: the Second Temple was constructed on the site of the first, and it was one country again. However we know from the Gospels that remnants of the schism remained in Jesus’ lifetime, since the Jews of that era considered the Samaritans as heretics.

An interesting feature of the schism is that the Northern Kingdom adopted idol worship shortly after the secession, yet from the scriptural accounts God continued to treat the two kingdoms on a more or less equal basis, without singling out one of them as the authentic one. Many prophets were sent to both kingdoms, and they all had the same message, calling the people to repentance. Present day Judaism is divided into several sects which coexist rather amicably in Israel and throughout the world, although many consider the Orthodox as the true believers. The Orthodox seem to have the greatest difficulty in accepting the concept of a permanently divided land that was once called Canaan.

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4. THE TEMPLE

Perhaps some parenthetical comments should be made about the Temple. Herod the Great, who reigned at Jesus’ birth, rebuilt the Temple just in time for Jesus to visit and preach in it. It was destroyed by the Romans during the Jewish rebellion in 70 AD. All that remains of Herod’s temple is the Western Wall or Wailing Wall, and above the Wall on top of the temple mount there stands the Mosque of Omar, commonly called the Dome of the Rock, which was originally constructed at the end of the seventh century. Most of the space inside the mosque is occupied by the temple mount, a huge rocky outcropping the size of a very large house. The Muslims claim that Muhammad ascended into Heaven at the mount.  There is a Jewish tradition that at this location Abraham had prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac. The Jewish people would like to rebuild their temple there once again, but the ancient mosque stands in the way. Thus the focal point of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict is at the site of the Temple built by Solomon 2950 years ago, which is now occupied by a wall built 2000 years ago, and a mosque originally built 1300 years ago. The whole situation seems almost beyond belief!

5. TIME OF JESUS

During His public life Jesus had frequent, often unpleasant, encounters with members of three groups of influential Jewish religious leaders, namely Pharisees, Sadducees and Scribes. The Pharisees were a largely lay group who accepted the binding power of the Torah or Pentateuch (first five books of the bible), as well as the oral traditions. They believed in angels, spirits, and the resurrection of the dead, and they emphasized strict observance of the letter of the Law.  Nicodemus, St. Paul, and possible Joseph of Arimathea, were Pharisees. In contrast to the Pharisees, the Sadducees were mostly clerical, with many members who were priests or rich people belonging to influential families. They accepted only the Torah as sacred scripture, but not the books of the prophets, the remaining Old Testament books called the writings, or Rabbinic interpretations of the Law. They denied the immortality of the soul, life after death, the resurrection, and the existence of angels or spirits. They were strongly swayed by Hellenism at the expense of traditional Jewish beliefs, and they had significant influence over the Sanhedrin, the governing council and high court of the Jewish nation. In addition they cultivated friendly relations with the Romans who occupied the country. The third group called Scribes were well educated Jewish laymen who studied and explained the law, and some belonged to the Sanhedrin. Those who were experts on the scriptures were called by the title Rabbi.

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6. COUNCIL OF JERUSALEM

The so-called Council of Jerusalem, held about 50 AD and described in the 15^th chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, was called because a group of Jewish converts to Christianity called Judaizers insisted that Gentile converts to Christianity must also become full fledged Jews, accept circumcision, and agree to obey all of the strict Jewish laws such as dietary laws. Peter, Paul, Barnabas, James, and others argued in favor of not imposing on the Gentile converts the heavy yoke of ancient Jewish practices. The decision of the Council was not to place on the Gentile converts any burden beyond abstaining from: 1) meat sacrificed to idols, 2) blood, 3) meats of strangled animals, and 4) unlawful marriage. This decision was accepted by all, and avoided a schism in the early Church. This council set the precedent of calling councils to settle disputes by discussions and voting by its participants.

7. EARLY CENTURY DISPUTES

Throughout much of the first five centuries of the Christian era, the Church was working out and finalizing its beliefs about God being one in nature and threefold in persons, and Jesus being both truly divine and truly human. Most of the heresies or denials of orthodox beliefs of these centuries involved these questions, and the Ecumenical Councils that were held addressed these issues and made decisions about them. Many of these early heresies were quite widespread, involving a large percentage of Christians. Eventually they died out, were suppressed, or became of minor importance in the Church. To put things in perspective we will list and characterize the councils some of the main heresies and of the period.

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a. Early Ecumenical Councils

0. Jerusalem, about 50 AD, decided that Gentile converts need not obey Mosaic laws.

1. Nicaea I (325) declared Christ to be divine, promulgated a Creed.

2. Constantinople I (381) proclaimed the Trinity, completed the Creed.

3. Ephesus (431) asserted that Jesus is truly human, Mary is the Mother of God.      

4. Chalcedon (451) concurred with the three earlier Councils.

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b. Early Church Heresies

1st century Judaizers require Gentile Christians to obey Jewish laws. 

1st/2nd Gnostics claimed a secret wisdom, Jesus not human. 

4th Arians asserted that Jesus was a creature inferior to God.

5th Pelagians taught that our own effort can save us.

5th Nestorians held that Mary cannot be called the Mother of God.

5th Monophysites affirmed that Jesus had only one nature. 

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8. FILIOQUE

One of the important controversies of the early centuries that persisted down to recent centuries is the filioque question. The Latin word filioque meaning "and from the son" is a combination of the suffix que meaning "and", and the ablative case of the word filius meaning "son." The Second Ecumenical Council at Constantinople proclaimed a profession of faith with the statement that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father (ex patre), while the earlier much shorter creed from Nicaea did not mention the procession.  Beginning in the 6^th century, the word filioque began being inserted into the Creed after "ex patre" in the Western Church, and this met with strong protests from the Eastern Church. It was eventually sung in Rome about the year 1000, later became accepted by the papacy as official doctrine, and was one of the issues that led to the schism of 1054, as discussed in the next section. The 4^th Lateran Council held in 1215 proclaimed a Creed with the phrase “from both (persons) equally“ (ab utroque pariter), avoiding the use of the controversial term filioque. The Councils of Lyons (1274) and Ferrara-Florence (1431-1445) inserted the filioque into their creedal statements. Finally the Council of Trent (1545-1563) proclaimed a Creed containing the expression ex patre filioque, "from the Father and the Son."  It may be that this particular creed had been in use throughout the Church for decades or perhaps for centuries prior to its proclamation at Trent. This Tridentine version of the creed is what was said in the Latin Mass before the Second Vatican Council, and it continues to be the form of the creed used in the vernacular Mass after Vatican II. Many people erroneously believe that it is the Nicene Creed, or more precisely the actual Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, that is now recited at Mass. Perhaps a less controversial designation for the creed now in use would be “modified Nicene Creed.” It is significant that the document Dominus Jesus issued in 2000 by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith includes the modified Nicene Creed without the filioque.

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9. EASTERN SCHISM

During the first six centuries of the Christian era there were five main centers of the Faith, each with its own languages, customs and liturgies: Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, Jerusalem and Rome. Then in the seventh century Muslim armies conquered the territory of three of them, namely Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, so only Rome and Constantinople remained strong centers of Christianity. Eight centuries later the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, and only Rome remained in the Christian camp. After the Muslim conquests of the seventh century  Rome and Constantinople were the capitals of the two major centers of political power in Europe, and their rivalry lasted for several centuries. There were also periodic religious tensions between the western variety of Christianity centered in Rome and the eastern variety centered in Constantinople. Some of the tension arose from the Pope’s insistence on his overall authority, and the position in the East that the pope is only primus inter pares, first among equals. In the eighth century the Emperor from Constantinople tried to remove icons or images from all the churches, a policy that was strongly resisted in the West. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea condemned the Iconoclasts in 787.  In the year 867 there was a temporary schism when Patriarch Photios of Constantinople declared Pope Nicholas I anathema for inserting the phrase filioque into the creed. The schism became official and permanent in the year 1054 when Patriarch Michael Cerularius and Pope Leo IX excommunicated each other with mutual anathemas. Thoughts of reunion became futile after the crusaders sacked the city of Constantinople in 1203, although there were unsuccessful attempts in that direction at the councils of Lyons in 1274, and Ferrara-Florence in 1439. Nevertheless, despite all the acrimony surrounding the disagreements between the East and West, both sides continue to share the same beliefs, so heretical doctrinal deviations were not involved in the thousand year old schism.

The second Vatican Council (1962-1965) in its decrees on Ecumenism (Unitatis redintegratio) and Eastern Churches (Orientalium Ecclesiarium) took significant steps toward eventual reunion. This was followed forthwith on December 7, 1965 by the mutual nullification of the anathemas of 1054 by Patriarch Athenagoras and Pope Paul VI. Another step toward reunion was taken in 1995 by the conciliatory encyclical of Pope John Paul II Ut Unum Sint, That They Might Be One. We can now seriously hope for, or perhaps realistically entertain, the possibility of eventual reunion sometime during the pontificate of Pope Benedict XVI.

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10. PROTESTANT REFORMATION

The 16^th century saw the end of a Christenity with a uniform set of beliefs and comparable modes of worship. Martin Luther set the tone for the Protestant Reformation when he submitted his ninety-nine theses to his bishop in the year 1517 (some say that he posted them on the door of the castle church in Wittenburg), and his reform movement became established at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530. Some of his main tenets were the primacy of scripture (sola scriptura), justification by faith alone, the centrality of Christ as savior and redeemer, the rejection of traditional teaching on the sacraments, and the denial of indulgences. John Calvin, founder of Presbyterianism, wrote his monumental work Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536. Henry VIII, founder of what came to be called the Anglican Church, promulgated the Act of Supremacy in 1534 which declared the King to be the head of the Church in England. Additional religious groups such as Anabaptists, Baptists, Methodists, Quakers, Unitarians, etc., made their appearance, and Christendom became permanently split into many denominations. No longer was there a common, unifying creed, code and cult as there had been for 1500 years, but rather there was now a great diversity in these areas. As the centuries passed there were additional fractures of unity, and most of the new churches that formed tended to evolve further and further away from their sources or roots in the traditional uniformity of belief, code of ethics, and manner of worship that still prevail in the Catholic and Orthodox branches of Christianity.

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11. BELIEFS OF CREEDAL-TRINITARIAN

PROTESTANT CHURCHES

What are sometimes referred to as mainline Protestant churches are close to the Catholic and Orthodox churches because they accept the Apostles’ and Nicene Creeds, they believe that Jesus Christ is true God and true man, and they profess the Trinity. There are four church groups in this category.

The Lutheran churches recognize as official the Book of Concord (1580) which contains the Apostles’, Nicene and Athanasian Creeds, the Augsburg Confession and the Apology to it, Luther’s Small and Large Catechisms, and other documents. They accept the Trinity and recognize Jesus Christ as true God and true man. Only the Augsburg Confession and the Small catechism are accepted by all Lutheran Churches. The first 21 articles of the Augsburg Confession present the overall theological position of the Lutherans to show that they do not dissent from the Catholic Church in any article of faith. The last seven articles delineate abuses which have crept into the Church, and which must be eliminated, such as Communion by bread only, mandatory priestly celibacy, compulsory confession, and excessive authority of the bishops. Since the Lutheran reformers considered themselves as restoring Christianity existing in a corrupt religious environment, to an earlier purer form they emphasized their continuity with ancient Christianity.

The Calvinistic or Presbyterian churches accept as articles of faith the doctrines of the Trinity, the divinity and humanity of Jesus, and the saving work of Christ. The decrees of councils and the writings of the Fathers of the Church were dissented from when they added beliefs not in Scripture. Calvinists agreed with Luther on the basic principles of Protestantism. The Westminster Confession (1648) is a classic formulation of the theology of Calvinism. It affirms scripture as the sole authority, together with the Trinity plus Jesus divine and human, as stated in the creeds. Reformed positions are presented on ministry, the sacraments, works, grace, and predestination.

The Anglican or Episcopalian churches based their original beliefs on the Thirty-nine Articles (1571) which presented doctrines common to Protestants and Catholics, and elaborated more fully on items of controversy. Acceptance of all these Articles is no longer widely compulsory. The Lambeth Quadrilateral which was adopted by the Lambeth Conference in 1888 provides the basis for discussions of union with other Christian churches. Its four points are acceptance of: Scripture as the rule of faith, the Apostles’ and Nicene Creeds, the sacraments of the Lord’s supper and Baptism, and the historic episcopate. Anglicans are convinced of the validity of their apostolic succession from the Apostles. The Book of Common Prayer permits flexibility in liturgical and doctrinal matters.

The Methodists originally constituted a reform movement within the Church of England, but they split from it in 1795, four years after their founder John Wesley died. They accept the doctrines of historic Christianity such as the Creeds, but with an emphasis on the Holy Spirit. They also agree with the tradition of the Reformation. They accept Christ as truly present in Communion.

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12. SCHISMS WITHIN RELIGIOUS ORDERS

To gain some perspective on the mentality behind the onset of schisms of religious groups, it might be helpful to examine the separations that have taken place in two mendicant religious orders, namely the Carmelites and the Franciscans. Why did they break up, and what keeps them from reuniting?

The original group of Carmelites gathered on Mt. Carmel in Palestine in 1155, and they were approved as an order by Pope Honorius in 1226. It was initially an order of friars, of men, then in 1452 the first institution of Carmelite nuns was established. A hundred years later some Carmelite convents had grown lax in their observances, so in 1562 Teresa of Avila founded a small convent of nuns wherein a stricter way of life was observed. Shortly thereafter, through the cooperation of John of the Cross, a number of monasteries adopted the stricter observance, and the order became permanently split into the earlier order of Carmelites, and the new, stricter order of Discalced Carmelites. Today, almost 460 years later, they remain split even though the differences between them are no longer so pronounced. Both orders follow the same tradition, revere the same heroes (e.g. Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross), and claim to be the true Carmelites.

The Franciscan order founded by Francis of Assisi dates back to about 1207, with the official approval coming from Pope Innocent III in 1209. The affiliated nuns or Order of St. Clare was founded in 1212. Down through their history the Franciscans have from time to time split into different groups which sometimes eventually reunited. The year 1517 saw the permanent split of the order into a group called the Observants and another group called the Conventuals. At that time there were about 30,000 Observant friars and 25,000 Conventual friars. Then in 1525 the Capuchins began as a reform movement to return to a literal observance of the rule of St. Francis, and introduce elements of the solitary life of hermits.  They permanently separated as the third branch of the order in 1619. These three independent branches of the Franciscans are now called the Friars Minor (O.F.M., formerly the Observants), the Friars Minor Conventual (O.F.M. Conv.), and the Friars Minor Capuchin (O.F.M. Cap.).

There are other branches of the Franciscans. The Third Order of lay people was founded in 1221 by St. Francis himself. It was originally called the Brethern and Sisters of Penance, and its members who are lay men and women living in the world without breaking family ties have traditionally been referred to as Tertiaries. After the Second Vatican Council this order had its name changed to the Secular Franciscan Order (SFO). Diocesan priests occasionally associate themselves with this order. When some of these priests wished to become Franciscan priests they formed what is called the Third Order Regular (T.O.R). The formation of this order was friendly, whereas the separations mentioned in the previous paragraph were far from amicable. Early in the 20^th century a new order of Franciscans came into being, called the Friars of the Atonement, and more recently the Friars of the Renewal was founded. Why? The latter was formed to bring about reform, and return to the true spirit of Francis!

The Franciscan family has orders of nuns called Second Orders. The main such order is the Poor Clares, or Order of St. Clare (O.S.C.), which was founded in 1212 by St. Clare under the guidance of St. Francis. The Poor Clares in Birmingham AL under the leadership of Mmother Angelica founded and operate the Eternal Word Television Network (EWTN) which has been so influential in the renewal of the Church in our country. There are also many other independent orders of nuns which were founded independently of the Poor Clares, and which strive to model themselves in the spirit of St. Francis.

The reasons for the splits in these mendicant orders, a zeal for reform and a desire to return to their roots established by their founders, are the same as the reasons for the splits in Christianity, as is attested to by the name Reformation that is given to the rise of Protestantism. It would be interesting for high Church officials to probe into this matter, and perhaps gain insights into how to bring about a reunion of Catholicism, Orthodoxy, and mainline Protestantism.

Perhaps it would be appropriate to introduce a joke into the discussion. There are three things that even God does not know, namely: what the Dominicans are thinking, what the Jesuits are doing, and how many orders of Franciscans there are.

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13. ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT

In recent decades there have been ecumenical tendencies to heal wounds, to resolve controversies, and in some cases to merge denominations. Since 1865 the Anglican communions have been holding periodic Lambeth conferences which are gatherings of bishops to discuss topics of interest to member churches. In 1910 the Edinburgh Conference discussed coordinating Protestant missionary activity, and as a followup in 1921 the International Missionary Council was formed. The World Council of Churches founded in 1948 represents about 150 Protestant and Orthodox bodies. In 1961 Pope John XXIII established the Secretariate for the Promotion of Christian Unity, and in 1964 the Second Vatican Council issued its decree Unitatis Redintegratio on Ecumenism. In his 1995 encyclical Ut Unam Sint Pope John Paul II stated (#3.1) “At the second Vatican Council the Catholic Church committed itself irrevocably to follow the path of the ecumenical venture.” In 1998 the Lutheran World Federation and the Catholic Church issued a Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, and in it they state that the 16^th century doctrinal condemnations from both sides on the doctrine of justification no longer apply. Thus we are now in a new era in which, Deo volente, the ecumenical venture should move forward irrevocably.

Perhaps the most hopeful area for progress lies with the churches mentioned in the previous section that profess belief in the early Creeds, the Trinity, and the divine and human natures of Jesus. The ancient concept of primus inter pares, first among equals, which was advocated centuries ago by the Eastern branches of Christianity for the position of the pope, might serve a working model for a confederation of the Creedal Churches. The pope would not relinquish any authority of jurisdiction or doctrine in the Catholic Church, but would undertake a new role among the Creedal Churches. Another possibility would be to permit Creedal Churches to reunite with the Catholic Church without requiring their members to assent to papal declarations of infallibility proclaimed subsequent to their severance of relations with Rome. There have been only two such declarations, the Immaculate Conception by Pope Pius IX in 1854, and The Assumption by Pius XII in 1950. This privilege would, of course, be understood as not applicable to present day Catholics. It is also interesting to note that the insertion of the phrase ab utroque pariter in the Creed at the 4^th Lateran Council took place 161 years after the onset of the Great Eastern Schism.

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