THE
ECUMENICAL COUNCILS
I. INTRODUCTION, SCRIPTURE,
Adult Education,
Charles P. Poole, Jr.
1. Introduction
2. Council of
3. First Four Ecumenical Councils
4. Later Ecumenical Councils
5. Convening Vatican II
6. Constitution Dei Verbum on Divine Revelation
6.1. Chap. 1
Revelation Itself
6.2. Chap. 2
The Transmission of Divine Revelation
6.3. Chap. 3
Inspiration and Interpretation of Scripture
6.4. Chap. 4
The Old Testament
6.5. Chap. 5
The New Testament
6.6. Chap. 6
Sacred Scripture in the Life of the Church.
7. Constitution Sacrosanctum Concilium on the Liturgy.
7.1 Introduction
7.2. Chap. 1 Restoration and Promotion of the
Sacred Liturgy
7.2.1. Nature and Importance of the Liturgy
7.2.2. Instruction and Active Participation
7.2.3. Reform of the Liturgy
7.2.4. Promotion of Liturgical Life
7.2.5. Promotion of Pastoral-Liturgical Action
7.3.
Chap. 2 The Most Sacred Mystery
of the Eucharist
7.4. Chap. 3
Other Sacraments and Sacramentals
7.5. Chap. 4
The Divine Office
7.6. Chap. 5
The Liturgical Year
7.7. Chap. 6
Sacred Music
7.8. Chap. 7
Sacred Art and Sacred Furnishings
7.9. Appendix on Revision of the Calendar.
1. INTRODUCTION
An
Ecumenical Council, sometimes called a General Council, is an assembly of all
the bishops of the world who convene to discuss, and hopefully to settle, some
problem or problems that trouble the Church.
They convene under the auspices of the supreme pontiff who must ratify
any decisions that are made. During the past 20 centuries such assemblies of
the bishops of the world have gathered together approximately once a century to
settle disputes that troubled the Church.
The most recent such assembly, the Second Vatican Council, convened in
1962 and closed in 1965.
When
the problems that arise in the Church are of a local nature, perhaps confined to
a particular diocese or country, then they are often settled by a local
assembly called a Synod presided over by a bishop. For example the Diocese of Charleston, SC,
USA, held a synod that lasted from 1990 to 1995 for the purpose of bringing
about renewal in the diocese. It was attended by many priests, deacons,
brothers, nuns, and lay people.
Perhaps
the most important local Council was the Council of Hippo which was held in
that North African city in 393 AD. It
decided which books constitute the New Testament, and that decision was later
confirmed by Rome.
We
will begin this presentation with a brief summary of the history of the early
Ecumenical Councils, and then we will proceed to review the results of the
Second Vatican Council. This initial
lecture will discuss two of the Constitutions, Dei Verbum on Divine Revelation, and Sacrosanctum Concilium on
The Liturgy, which constitute 10.8 % of the Council documents. Lecture 2 will discuss the remaining two
Constitutions which are on the Church,
and correspond to 35.8 % of the Council documents. The remaining 14 documents will be discussed
in the final three lectures, and the final lecture will also include a discussion
of the documents which implemented decisions of the Council.
2. COUNCIL OF JERUSALEM
Pentecost
was the birthday of the Church. After
the coming of the Paraclete (Acts 2), the apostles
were filled with the Holy Spirit and became inspired to preach the Good News of
the Kingdom of God. Peter gave his
initial speech at Pentecost, and about three thousand persons accepted the
message and were baptized. Many signs
and wonders were done among the people by the apostles (Acts 5:12), and the
Church grew. Opposition and persecution
soon followed. Seven deacons were
selected to help, and one of them named Stephen, gave a speech (Acts 7) proclaiming the Lord Jesus which infuriated
the onlookers, and they stoned him to death.
He became the first martyr of Christianity.
Shortly
after that St. Paul had his mystical experience on the road to Demascus (Acts 9), and was converted. Until his conversion almost all the early
Christians were Jewish converts. When Paul made his missionary journeys around
Asia Minor and Greece he converted many Gentiles as well as Jews, and Gentile converts
began to outnumber Jewish converts. A
controversy arose concerning whether or not Gentile converts were obliged to
obey the Jewish dietary and other rules.
To decide the matter a meeting was held called the Council of Jerusalem
(Acts 15) at which Peter spoke first, followed by Paul, Barnabas, and
James. The assembly unanimously decided
that Gentile converts were not bound by Mosaic Laws, and a letter ro this effect was drafted and brought to the Gentile
converts in Antioch who had appealed the matter. This was an example of how a Council can
amicably settle very emotionally filled disputes in the Church.
3. FIRST FOUR ECUMENICAL COUNCILS
During
the first two centuries of the Church controversies arose as to whether Jesus
Christ is human, divine, or both at the same time. The New Testament is not unambiguous on this
matter. The first Ecumenical Council
held at Nicaea in the year 325 determined that the
Father and Son both share the same divine nature, and the second such council
held at Constantinople in 381 decided that the Holy Spirit also shares this
same divine nature. Together these two
councils provide the text for the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, more
commonly known as the Nicene Creed. The
third Ecumenical Council held at Ephesus in 431 confirmed that the Virgin Mary
is truly the Mother of God by declaring that she can properly be called by the
Greek title Theotokos or God Bearer. This is true because Jesus is
one person with two natures. The fourth
Ecumenical Council held at Chalcedon in 451 declared that Jesus Christ is one Person with
two natures, a divine nature consubstantial with the Father and the Holy
Spirit, and a human nature consubstantial with us. It reaffirmed the decisions of the three
earlier councils, and brought to a close a century and a quarter of
Christological controversies.
Most
of the leaders of the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century such as
Martin Luther and John Calvin acknowledged the validity of the first four
Ecumenical Councils, so they are accepted as binding by modern day Anglicans
(Episcopalians), Lutherans, Presbyterians, and some other ecclesial
bodies. The seventh Ecumenical Council
held at Nicaea in 787 settled the Iconoclasm
controversy. The iconoclasts rejected
the veneration of sacred images as superstitious. In contrast to this, the Council Nicaea II held that the veneration accorded to an image
passes on to what the image represents.
This issue was of central importance to Orthodox Christians since in
their churches there is a partition or screen called an iconostasis covered
with icons which separates the sanctuary from the nave or main part of the
church.
4. LATER ECUMENICAL COUNCILS
A
list of all the Ecumenical Councils is as follows:
|
0 30 Jerusalem |
8 869-870
Constantinople IV |
16
1414-1418 Constance |
|
1 325 Nicaea I |
9 1123
Lateran I |
17
1431-1445 Florence |
|
2 381 Constantinople I |
10 1139
Lateran II |
18
1515-1517 Lateran V |
|
3 431 Ephesus |
11 1179
Lateran |
19
1545-1563 Trent |
|
4 451 Chalcedon |
12 1215
Lateran IV |
20
1869-1870 Vatican I |
|
5 553 Constantinople II |
13 1245
Lyons I |
21
1962-1965 Vatican II |
|
6 680-681
Constantinople |
14 1274 Lyons
II |
22
2???-2??? Undecided |
|
7 787 Nicaea II |
15 1311-1312
Vienna |
|
Decisions made by various Ecumenical Councils are
indicated in the table located at the end of this document. Some of the more important decisions of these
Councils were as follows:
Chalcedon 451 concurred with the
decisions of the three earlier Councils which established that God is a Trinity
of persons, the Second Person of the
Trinity Jesus Christ is both truly human and truly divine, and Mary is
truly the Mother of God. .
Nicaea II 787 condemned the
Iconoclasts, as explained above.
Lateran II 1139 affirmed the validity of infant
baptism, the Eucharist, the Sacraments
Florence
(sometimes called Basil-Ferrara-Florence-Rome) 1431 affirmed the doctrine of
purgatory.
Lateran V
1512-1517 declared the soul to be immortal, but unfortunately failed in its aim
to reform the Church.
Trent 1545-1563 clarified many dogmata,
and fortunately brought about reform in the Church.
Vatican I 1869-1870 defined papal infallibility.
Vatican II
brought the Church back to its roots (ad fontes or ressoucement), and also updated it (aggiornamento). The results
were reform of the liturgy, catechism, code of canon law, revived catechumenate, and ecumenism.
The 1991 book Conciliorum Oecumenicorum Decreta contains the decrees of all the Councils in
their original languages. The decrees of
the first seven Councils from Nicaea I to Nicaea II were proclaimed in both Latin and Greek. Those of the eighth Council (Constantinople
IV) were in Latin, with parts of them also in Greek. The remaining Councils from Lateran I to
Vatican II were only proclaimed in Latin because in the year 1054 the Churches
of Rome and Constantinople parted ways, and have remained that way for almost a
millennium.
The
decrees of the 21 Ecumenical Councils take up 1041 pages of this book
(corrected for two languages in the beginning), with only 359 pages devoted to
the decrees of the first 16 Councils from Nicaea I to
Constance, and 683 pages devoted to the more recent five Councils. The average number of pages for the first 16
Councils was 22.2. The statistics are as
follows:
First 16 Councils
17 Florence 1431-1445 140 pages 13.4
%
18 Lateran
V 1512-1517 64 pages 6.1 %
19
20 Vatican I 1869-1870 16 pages 1.6 %
21 Vatican II 319 pages 30.6 %
Vatican I was not the shortest since the decrees
of both Constantinople II and Lateran I
only occupied 8 pages each. The decrees of Vatican II take up almost one third
of the total, being longer (319 pages) than
the sum of those (303 pages) of the first 15 Councils.
With
this brief introduction to earlier Councils we will pass on to a discussion of
the Second Vatican Council.
5. CONVENING VATICAN II
On
The
most significant and most important of the 16 proclamations of Vatican II are
the four Constitutions which treat
substantive doctrinal issues, two on the Church, one on Divine Revelation, and
one on the Liturgy. Two of these Constitutions are called dogmatic, one is
called pastoral, and the third is undesignated.
A dogmatic constitution is the most solemn means of a conciliar proclamation.
In actuality no new dogmata were proclaimed,
although some were rethought, restated, or clarified, such as calling the
Church a sacrament. Next in significance
are the nine Decrees, and of lesser significance are the three Declarations,
which treat more specific and more practical issues. Of course they are all important, but there
is a hierarchy of importance. The
Constitutions are the documents that are most often quoted and most often
cited. Their official titles are the
first two or three words of their texts in Latin. The title Lumen
Gentium of the Dogmatic Constitution on the
Church means Light of Mankind in English, the title Gaudium et Spes of the corresponding Pastoral
Constitution means Joy and Hope, the title Dei
Verbum of Divine Revelation means The Word of
God, and the title Sacrosanctum
Concilium
of the Liturgy document means Most Sacred Council. Some of these Latin titles relate to the
subject matter, and some do not. Of
especial significance are the titles Unitatis Reintegratio (Re-establishment of Union) of the
Ecumenism Decree, and Dignitatis Humanae (Of
Human Dignity) of the Declaration on Human Freedom.
The
Council intended to bring the Church back to its roots (ressourcement), and make it face
up to the modern world (aggiornamento). Its approach was to be pastoral, ministering
to the people and to the world, rather than dogmatic, proclaiming
doctrine. It would discuss how the
Church relates to those outside its flock.
Reforming the liturgy was a first order of business, and the main
subject that was concluded at the first session in 1962. The Council of Trent had issued many anathemas
or condemnations; Vatican II would issue none.
Pope John XXIII wanted an emphasis on pastoral concerns, liturgy,
ecumenism, and freedom of discussion.
When Paul VI arrived he emphasized the Church’s interior renewal,
clarifying its theology, promoting Christian unity, and dialoguing with the
modern world.
The
Council was attended by over 2,500 bishops, theological experts or periti, various
officials, and observers. There were
many observers from other Christian traditions who could advise but not vote.
6. CONSTITUTION DEI VERBUM ON DIVINE REVELATION
The
Constitutions Dei Verbum
and Lumen Gentium
are the two most fundamental declarations to be produced by the Council.
During the debates concerning Holy Scritpure there
were three troublesome issues: (a) the scope of inerrancy, (b) the historicity of the Gospels, and ( c)
the relationship of scripture and tradition.
The texts that addressed these points were very carefully written, and
in many cases were meticulously nuanced.
6.1. Chap.
1 Revelation Itself
The
first chapter proclaims that “The obedience of faith must be given to God who
reveals, an obedience by which a man entrusts his whole self freely to God,
offering “the full submission of intellect and will to God who reveals,” and
freely assenting to the truth revealed by Him (#5).” We read further “that those religious truths
which are by their very nature accessible to human reason can be known by all
men with ease, with solid certitude, and with no trace of error, even in the
present state of the human race (#6, Enchiridion
Symbolorum).”
6.2. Chap.
2 The Transmission of Divine Revelation
Concerning
Scripture and tradition we read “It is not from sacred scripture alone that the
Church draws her certainty about every thing that has been revealed . . . .
Sacred tradition and sacred Scripture form one sacred deposit of the
Word of God, which is committed to the Church.”
The chapter concludes with the statement “Sacred tradition, sacred
scripture, and the teaching authority of the Church, in accord with God’s most
wise design, are so linked and joined together that one cannot stand without
the others, and that all together and each in its own way, under the action of
the Holy Spirit, contribute effectively to the salvation of souls.”
6.3. Chap.
3 Inspiration and Interpretation of
Scripture
At
the start of the Council many agreed that two points of critical importance for
clarification were the inspiration and the inerrancy of Sacred Scripture. This is done in the paragraph: “Both the Old
and the New Testament in their entirety, with all their parts, are sacred and
canonical because, having been written under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit
(cf. Ju. 20:31; 2 Tim. 3:16; 2 Pet 1:19-21; 3:15-16)
they have God as their author, and have been handed on as such to the Church
herself. In composing the sacred books
God chose men, and while employed by Him, they made use of their powers and
abilities, so that with Him acting in them and through them, they, as true
authors, consigned to writing everything and only those things which He
wanted. Therefore, since everything
asserted by the inspired authors or the sacred writers must be held to be
asserted by the Holy Spirit, it follows that the books of Scripture must be
acknowledged as teaching firmly, faithfully, and without error that truth which
God wanted to be put into the sacred writings for the sake of our
salvation. Therefore “all scripture is
inspired by God and is useful for teaching, for reproving, for correcting, for
instruction in justice; that the man of God may be perfect, equipped for every
good work” (2 Tim. 3:16-17, Greek text) (#11).”
The text continues, ”However, since God speaks in sacred scripture
through men in human fashion, the interpreter of Sacred Scripture, in order to
see clearly what God wanted to communicate to us should carefully investigate
what meaning the sacred writers really intended, and what God wanted to
manifest by means of their words (#12).”
Some
explanation follows “Those who search out the intention of the sacred writers
must, among other things, have regard for ‘literary forms.’ For truth is proposed and expressed in a
variety of ways, depending on whether a text is history of one kind or another,
or whether its form is that of prophesy, poetry, or some other type of
speech. The interpreter must investigate
what meaning the sacred writer intended to express and actually expressed in
particular circumstances as he used contemporary literary forms in accordance
with the situation of his time and culture.
For the correct understanding of what the sacred author wanted to
assert, due attention must be paid to the characteristic styles of perceiving,
speaking, and narrating which prevailed at the time of the sacred writer, and
to the customs men normally followed at that period in their everyday dealings
with one another (#12).” In interpreting
the scriptures “attention must be given to the content and unity of the whole
of scripture (#14).”
Perhaps
the focal point of this chapter is the assertion mentioned above that
“Scripture must be acknowledged as teaching firmly, faithfully, and without
error that truth which God wanted to be put into the sacred writings for the
sake of our salvation.”
6.4. Chap.
4 The Old Testament
“The
principal purpose to which the plan of the Old Covenant was directed was to
prepare for the coming both of Christ, the universal redeemer, and of the
messianic kingdom. to announce the coming by prophesy (#15).” Nevertheless these books “also contain
things which are incomplete and temporary (#13).” We further read “God the inspirer and author
of both Testaments, wisely arranged that the new Testament be hidden in the
Old, and the Old be made manifest in the New . . . the books of the old
Testament with all their parts, caught up in the proclamation of the gospel,
acquire and show forth their full meaning in the New Testament (#16).”
6.5. Chap.
5 The New Testament
In the
New Testament “the gospels have a special pre-eminence . . . for they are the
principal witness of the life and teaching of the Incarnate Word, our Savior
(#18).” These gospels “faithfully hand
down what Jesus Christ, while living among men, really did and taught for their
eternal salvation. . . . The sacred authors wrote the four gospels,
selecting some things from the many which had been handed on by word of mouth
or in writing, reducing some of them to a synthesis, some things in view of the
situation of their churches, and preserving the form of the proclamation, but
always in such fashion that they told us the honest truth about Jesus
(#19).” “In the epistles of St. Paul
and other apostolic writings . . . those
matters which concern the Lord are confirmed, His true teaching is more and
more fully stated. . . .
The saving power of the divine work of Christ is preached, the story is
told of the beginning of the Church and her marvelous growth, and her marvelous
fulfillment is foretold (#20).”
6.6. Chap.
6 Sacred Scripture in the Life of the
Church.
The
Church “has always regarded the Sacred Scriptures together with tradition as
the supreme rule of faith (#21),” and
therefore “Easy access to scripture should be provided for all the Christian
faithful (#22).” The Constitution
commends the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate translations, but urges
“correct translations” made “from the original texts of the sacred books,”
perhaps in cooperation with other Christian groups. “Sacred theology rests on the written word of
God, together with sacred tradition, as its primary and perpetual foundation
(#24).” Everyone should read, study, and
“hold fast to the sacred scriptures (#25),” for according to St. Jerome
“Ignorance of the Scriptures is ignorance of Christ.”
7. CONSTITUTION SACROSANCTUM CONCILIUM ON THE
LITURGY.
7.1. Introduction
This
was the first document to be approved by the Council, and it begins with a
paragraph that explains the rationale for convening the Council: “It is the
goal of this most sacred Council to intensify the growth of Catholics in
Christian living; to make more responsive to the requirement of our times those
church observances which are open to adaptation; to nurture whatever can
contribute to the unity of all who believe in Christ; and to strengthen those
aspects of the Church which can help summon all mankind into her embrace
(#1).”
The
introduction continues: “It is through the Liturgy, especially the divine Euchristic Sacrifice,
that “the work of our redemption is exercised.” The liturgy is thus the outstanding means by
which the faithful can express in their
lives, and manifest to others, the mystery of Christ and the real nature of the
true Church (#32).”
The
document states that the general principles that are promulgated pertain to
all rites, but the practical norms apply
only to the Roman Rite (#3).” Then it
makes clear that “Holy Mother Church holds all lawfully acknowledged rites to
be of equal authority and dignity; that she wishes to preserve them in the
future, and to foster them in every way (#4).” Where necessary these rites should also be
revised to meet the “needs of modern times.”
7.2. Chap. 1
Restoration and Promotion of the Sacred Liturgy
7.2.1. Nature and Importance of the Sacred Liturgy
Christ
is present in the Church in many ways: especially in her liturgical
celebrations, in the sacrifice of the Mass, especially in the Eucharistic
species, in the sacraments, in His word, and when the Church prays and sings
(#7).” Every liturgical celebration “is
a sacred action surpassing all others.
No other action of the Church can match its claim to efficacy, nor equal
the degree of it (#7).” However “before
men can come to the liturgy they must be called to faith, and to conversion
(#9).”
There
are two important aspects of the liturgy.
“It is the summit toward which the activity of the Church is directed;
at the same time it is the fountain from which all her power flows (#10).” The faithful should “take part knowingly,
actively, and fruitfully (#11).” “The
spiritual life, however, is not confined to the liturgy. . . .
Popular devotions of the Christian people are warmly recommended
(#12,13).”
7.2.2.
Instruction and Active Participation
The
aim of liturgical renewal is made clear: in the restoration and promotion of
the sacred liturgy, the full and active participation of the people is the aim
to be considered before all else. There
is an insistence on both zeal and patience in this promotion because some
pastors might be over-zealous, and others will probably be rather sluggish in
instituting the new liturgy in the vernacular.
7.2.3. Reform
of the Liturgy
“The
liturgy is made up of unchangeable elements divinely instituted, and elements
subject to change. The later not only
may but ought to be changed with the passage of time if features have by chance
crept in which are less harmonious with the intimate nature of the liturgy, or
if existing elements have grown less functional. . . . In this restoration both texts and
rites should be drawn up so that they express more clearly the holy things
which they signify (#21).” The Council established some general norms, and also
some specific norms, to be followed.
The
first general norm is that the regulation of the liturgy depends on the
Apostolic See, or on territorial bodies of bishops. “Absolutely no other person, not even a
priest, may add, remove, or change anything in the liturgy on his own authority
(#22).” There are two considerations:
“That sound tradition may be retained, and yet the way be open for legitimate
progress .” Furthermore “any new forms
adapted should in some way grow organically from forms already existing
(#23).” There is some urgency; since “Sacred Scripture is of paramount
importance . . . the liturgical books
are to be revised as soon as possible (#24).”
The
specific norms emphasize that liturgical services are not private, but rather
communal in nature. They usually involve
“the presence and active participation of the faithful (#27).” To ensure this “the people should be
encouraged to take part by means of acclamations, responses, psalmody,
antiphons, and songs, as well as by actions, gestures, and bodily
attitudes. And at the proper times, all
should observe a reverent silence (#30).”
“The
liturgy makes distinctions between persons according to their liturgical
functions and sacred Orders, and there are liturgical laws providing for due
honors to be given to civil authorities.
Apart from these instances, no special honors are to be paid in the
liturgy to any private persons or classes of persons, whether in the ceremony
or by external display (#32).” There is
a desire that “The rites should be distinguished by a noble simplicity; they
should be short, clear, and unencumbered (#34).’ In addition “Bible services should be
encouraged (#35).”
There
are two interesting statements about language.
The first such statement “Particular law remaining in force, the use of
the Latin language is to be preserved in the Latin Rite (#36)” has been largely
ignored, and the second such statement concerning the use of the vernacular,
namely that: “the limits of its employment may be extended (#36)” has become
universal practice. The Constitution
insists that translations of liturgical books “intended for use in the liturgy
must by approved by the competent ecclesiastical authority (#36).”
7.2.4.
Promotion of Liturgical Life
This
section emphasizes the role of the bishop as the “high priest of his flock
(#31),” and “the common celebration of the Sunday Mass (#42)” in parishes,
7.2.5.
Promotion of Pastoral-Liturgical Action
Each
territorial grouping of dioceses (e.g. a province) should have a liturgical
commission and some kind of Institute for Pastoral Liturgy. In addition each individual diocese should
have commissions on sacred liturgy, sacred music, and sacred art, which
harmonize their activities.
.3. Chap.
2 The Most Sacred Mystery of the
Eucharist
The
far reaching proclamation “A more representative portion of the Holy Scriptures
will be read to the people over a cycle of years (#51),” it was implemented by
establishing a three-fold Sunday cycle and a two-fold weekly cycle. “By means of the homily, the mysteries of the
faith and the guiding principles of the Christian life are expounded from the
sacred text during the course of the liturgical year (#52).” At Mass prior to Vatican II, the priest
preached a sermon on almost any topic; now the preaching is a homily on the
scriptures of the day. After the homily
the “common prayer” or “prayer of the faithful” has been restored (#53).
The
directive “In Masses which are celebrated with the people, a suitable place may
be allocated to their mother tongue (#54)” has been implemented in such a way
that the “suitable place” is the entire Mass.
In contrast to this the next mandate: “Steps should be taken so that the
faithful may also be able to pray or sing together in Latin those parts of the
Mass which pertain to them (#52)” has been only sparingly implemented . Surprisingly, the most common implementation
of this sentiment has been the invocations Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison which are in Greek
There
should be a preference for receiving Communion from hosts consecrated at the
Mass being attended. Communion to the
laity under both species of Bread and Wine was authorized for “events of
special solemnity,” such as to the newly baptized at the Mass of their
baptism (#55).
The implementation has been almost unrestricted to all the laity.
Concelebrations were approved for special occasions, and
the implementation has been for almost any occasion.
7.4. Chap.
3 Other Sacraments and Sacramentals
Sacramentals are defined as sacred signs which bear a resemblence to the sacraments. “They signify effects,
particularly of a spiritual kind, which are ordained through the Church’s
intercession. By them men are disposed
to receive the chief effect of the sacraments, and various ocasions
of life are rendered holy (#60).” The mother tongue is authorized for use in
administering the sacraments and sacramentals,
something which is almost universal now.
The catechumenate for preparing adults to join the Church was
mandated (#64), and has been restored.
“The roles of parents and godparents, and also their duties, should be
brought out more sharply in the rite itself (#67),” and “a special Mass “for
the conferring of baptism” is to be inserted into the Roman Missal (#66).” In
addition, “A new rite is also to be drawn up for converts who have already been
validly baptized; it should indicate that they are now admitted to Communion
with the Church (#69).”
“The
Rite of Confirmation is to be revised (#71), and it is “fitting for the
candidates to renew their baptismal promises just before they are confirmed
(#71).” The sacrament called “extreme
unction” or “sacrament of the sick” can be administered as soon as someone
begins to be in danger of death from sickness or old age (#71).” In practice it is often administered even when the danger of death is
quite remote.
There
should be revisions of the Rites of Ordination, Marriage, and the Burial of the
Dead. These have been done.
7.5. Chap.
4 The Divine Office
The
Divine Office is to be revised. Lauds
(morning prayer) and Vespers (evening prayer) are the chief hours. Clerics in major orders “are bound to pray
the entire office every day (#96).” The
Council mandated that: “The Latin language is to be retained by clerics in
reciting the Divine Office (#101),” but this mandate has never been
applied.
7.6. Chap.
5 The Liturgical Year
The
liturgical year was described, and it is to be revised. “The Lenten season has
a twofold character: 1) it recalls baptism or prepares for it; 2) it stresses a
penitential spirit (#109).”
7.7. Chap.
6 Sacred Music
The
Constitution affirms that “Sacred music increases in holiness to the degree
that it is intimately linked with liturgical action, winningly expresses
prayerfulness, promotes solidarity, and enriches sacred rites with heightened
solemnity (#112).” “The Council
acknowledges Gregorian Chant as proper to the Roman liturgy: therefore, other
things being equal, it should be given pride of place in liturgical
services. But other forms of music,
especially polyphony, are by no means excluded from liturgical celebrations, as
long as they accord with the spirit of
the liturgical action (#116).” “In the
Latin Church the pipe organ is to be held in high esteem, . . .
But other instruments may be admitted for use in divine worship (#120).”
7.8. Chap.
7 Sacred Art and Sacred Furnishings
The
Church reserves the right to decide what works of art are suited for sacred
purposes. “The practice of placing sacred
images in churches so that they may be venerated by the faithful is to be
firmly maintained (#125).” Ordinaries
“should strive after noble beauty rather than mere extravagance (#125).”
7.9. Appendix
on Revision of the Calendar.
The Appendix
states that the Church would not object to the assignment of a fixed Sunday for
Easter, or to the establishment of a a perpetual
calendar by civil society.
Acknowledgment
I wish to thank Doris Christley
for many helpful comments on this chapter.
Table of Ecumenical Councils in which various
doctrines and practices of the Church were discussed. The Table entries “X” were compiled from Conciliorum Oecumenicorum Decreta.
|
Doctrine or Practice |
Earlier Councils |
Lateran
IV 1215 |
Lyons I 1245 |
Lyons II 1274 |
Vienna 1311-2 |
Consance 1414-8 |
Florence 1431-45 |
Lateran
V 1512-7 |
Trent 1545-1563 |
Vatican
I 1869-70 |
Vatican
II 1962-5 |
|
Seven
sacraments |
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
|
X |
|
|
|
ex opere operato |
|
|
|
|
|
X |
X |
|
X |
|
|
|
Confirmation |
Constant.
I, 381 |
|
|
|
|
|
X |
|
X |
|
X |
|
The
Mass |
Ephesus
431 |
X |
|
X |
|
|
|
|
X |
X |
X |
|
Mass
as sacrifice |
Ephesus
431 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
X |
|
|
All
in one species |
|
|
|
|
|
X |
X |
|
X |
|
|
|
Transubstantiation |
|
X |
|
|
|
X
|
X |
|
X |
X |
|
|
Confession |
|
|
|
|
|
X |
X |
|
X |
|
|
|
Extreme
Unction |
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
|
X |
|
|
|
Ordination
|
6
other Councils |
X |
|
X |
X |
X |
X |
|
X |
|
X |
|
Matrimony
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
|
X |
|
|
|
Purgatory
|
|
|
X |
|
|
|
X |
|
X |
X |
X |
|
Indulgences
|
|
X
|
X |
X |
X |
X |
|
|
X |
X |
|
|
Relics |
Nicaea
II, 787 |
X
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
X |
|
|
Images,
icons |
Nicaea
II, 787 Constant. IV 870 |
|
|
X |
|
|
|
|
X |
X |
|
|
Venerate
saints |
Nicaea
II, 787 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
X |
X |
|
Filioque |
|
X |
|
X |
|
|
X |
|
X |
|
X |